The Effects of Cyberschools on Public Education Essay

The Effects of Cyberschools on Public Education - Essay Example When the Western Pennsylvania cyberschool opened in the 2000-01 school year, 525 grade 12 students were enrolled in it. In the 2001-2002 school year, 996 students were enrolled (KPMG Consulting, 2001). Indeed, demographic figures are a testament to the success of the Western Pennsylvania cyberschool for, not only are enrolment figures steadily n the increase but, an increasing number of students and parents are opting for cyberschool as a preferred alternative to public schooling, with the result being that that while 48% of the enrolled students are former home schoolers, 52% are former public school students from twelve south west region counties. Added to that, 27 of the enrolled students are classified as gifted' and 117 are special education needs students (KPMG Consulting, 2001). The implication here is that, within Western Pennsylvania at least, cyberschooling is emerging as a viable, valid and vital alternative to public schooling. Within the parameters of the outlined problem, the research shall attempt the determination of the impact of cyberschools on public education, with the focus being on Western Pennsylvania. 3 Definition of Key Terms The focus of this action research is well-defined and limited to the relationship between public schooling and cyberschooling, on the one hand, and the emergence of cyberschools as an alternative to both home and public schooling. The focus, as stated, allows for the identification of three key terms, those being cyberschools, public education and home schooling. Each of these terms shall now be defined in order to contextualize their usage in the... The focus of this action research is well-defined and limited to the relationship between public schooling and cyberschooling, on the one hand, and the emergence of cyberschools as an alternative to both home and public schooling. The research and data analysis carried out allows for the statement of a set of conclusions. The first of these is that the public school system is under tremendous strain, both because of increasing student populations and decreasing qualified teacher populations. The consequence of the aforementioned is the decreasing capacity for effective education and an ever dwindling ability to ensure the safety and security of students on school grounds and property. The stated has led many parents to turn to Homeschooling and, eventually, to cyberschools. As pertains to cyberschools, the research data allows for the conclusion that it is an effective, viable, vital and feasible alternative to both public education and Homeschooling. This paper makes a conclusion that given that no data was found on the actual effect that cyberschools have had on the public school system, it is difficult to present definitive conclusions regarding this relationship. Nevertheless, one may assume that cyberschools will be integrated into the public school system in due course, thereby relieving state and federal governments of a substantial percentage of the cost involved in the maintenance and running of public schools and allowing access to education for those who, for a variety of reasons, had no previous access. In other words, cyberschools will not function as a threat to public schools but as a support system.

The influence of modern technology on Society

The influence of modern technology on Society 1. Introduction While technology is often described as the most important influence upon society (ref), it remains a subject which deserves further study. This situation is generally accepted, with politicians, sociologists, industrialists and educationalists alike recognising that technology lies at the very heart of society (Chandler, 1996). The critical role that technology plays in the development of society, stimulating not only the economy but society’s socio-cultural values, rather than being merely a tool of society, however, is referred to as ‘technological determinism’ (Underwood, 2009). It is this aspect of how technology drives modern society that this essay addresses. Social progress has come to be equated with technical progress, particularly since the Industrial Revolution (Beniger, 1989). This progress has not always been acknowledged at the time it was occurring; indeed, as Beniger further notes, ‘human society seems rather to evolve largely through changes so gradual as to be all but imperceptible, at least compared to the generational cycles of the individuals through whose lives they unfold’ (1989, p. 2). Perhaps because of this ‘historical myopia’, the value of the change may not be evaluated until the changes has already passed (Beniger, 1989, p. 2). Critics such as Henry David Thoreau, for instance, suggested that improvements in society’s technical means are no guarantee of improved ends, and that they may instead lead to a mechanistic and fatalistic outlook, positing that we do not ride upon the railroad; it rides upon us (1845, p. 308). Thus, technology itself becomes an overriding preoccupation, for it never stops still. Technological advancement seems important at the time to different ages in different societies, psychologically if not practically; in a variety of modern societies, for example, young people presently feel a heightened empathy with the digital age (Bennett and Maton, 2010). However, not all sectors of the community will be directly involved with, share an understanding, or even see the relevance, of the latest technological inventions. Nevertheless, as de Tocqueville (1990, p. xxii) noted in 1840, ‘this social revolution, which I believe to be irresistible†¦ is already accomplished or about to be so’, and thus recognition of it is recognition of the past as much as the present. The current revolution in technology, known variously as the ‘Information Age’ or ‘Age of Technology’, similarly is unrelenting: the older person who is reluctant to use a computer has a life shaped by others’ use of computers and may even accept a basic mobile telephone, once considered a glamourous accessory (Coeckelbergh, 2012). As globalisation becomes an increasingly significant factor in countries’ economic success, technological competence is becoming an essential tool for surviving and thriving not only in society, but in its constituent parts, such as employment, education, agriculture, and industry. 2. Advantages and disadvantages of modern technological progress The younger generation today, like many previous generations, seeks to change the world and make it a better and more comfortable place in which to live (Griswold, 2012). They want to be contributors to peace, economic reforms, the improvement of public services and many other aspects of the society. For them, the best way to contribute to these changes is through modern technology. (Weiser and Brown, 1997). This does not necessarily mean that youth wants to make a huge change on the view of the world where they grew up, or that they just want to split away from the norms of society. Instead, they believe that the advances in communication, through technological means, will facilitate social change as no previous generation has had the opportunity to learn so much, so authentically, from one another (Griswold, 2012). The ability for real-time conversations, forums, information exchange, visualisation of other cultures, and greater social equality across the world has developed more in the last 20-25 years than at any other time in history. This has allowed commentary on situations as they develop, rather than purely through the perspective of written media. For example, the role of social media during the ‘Arab Spring’, not only through Twitter but Facebook and other social media platforms, provided contextualisation for the media reports at a time when media bias is increasingly critically examined (Khondker, 2011). Thus, this generation is able to confirm journalists’ interpretation of an event, even in film, with those who are participating on both sides of the event, as well as casual observers. This is unique in history. The degree to which unfettered access to opinion, counter-opinion, reportage, and propaganda will truly reshape the world is yet to be determined. The Habermasian interpretation of the development of the public sphere holds some analogies, as the democratisation of critical analysis unfolded in fin-de-sià ¨cle Viennese coffee houses (Habermas, 1989). According to di Maggio et al. (2001) extensive social effects, both optimistic and pessimistic, have been claimed for many communications technologies before our current computer-based age of information technology. The so-called I.T. revolution (which tends to be presented as the ‘final’ communications revolution) can be seen as having been preceded by the ‘writing revolution’ and ‘the print revolution’, and only the latest phase of an ‘electronics revolution’ which began with telegraphy and telephony. Winston (1998) criticises technological determinism and instead develops his theory of cultural determinism. In this theory, Winston considers not how technology shapes society, but rather that the evolution of technology, which is not static, is mediated and manipulated by society. Thus, as a result of these manoeuvres, the ‘radical potential’ of a specific technology is stifled; society therefore only accepts that which it believes itself to be in a position to accept (Winston, 1998). Systems and machines like computers, mobile phones and operating systems, which just involve one click on the computer, replace the things which used to takes hours or even days. Almost every home has a computer and telephone, and individuals within those homes often each have a mobile phone (Bennett and Maton, 2010). For some people, the application of technology is the only technique for them to develop patience, as even the tedious business of waiting can be ameliorated by keeping busy with a mobile phone, especially for youth. One of the most important advantages of modern technology is globalisation, which has allowed the world to feel ‘closer’, and permitted the worlds economy to become a single, interdependent system (Barrell and Fic, 2014). This means that people can not only share information quickly and efficiently, but can also bring down barriers of linguistic and geographic boundaries. Zhong (2007) observes that, in todays stock markets, financial infrastructure, global news organisations, powerful militaries, strong governments and big corporations, instantaneous communication is an asset society cannot afford to lose. The internet allows interconnection and promotes globalisation and information sharing. The reduction in the cost of instantaneous communication over the last 20 years have considerably expanded its potential, by making it accessible to developing as well as developed economies. However, modern technology does not bring advantages but some disadvantages as well. The similarity of lifestyles, whereby communication channels homogeneity, can have deleterious effects (Griswold, 2012). Before the rise of film, television, and the internet, people had different cultures and traditions that were reflected in the way they wear clothes or design buildings. Now, in a form of creeping conformity, people tend to build the same models of house and wear the same fashions. The new, modern technology is excellent in many ways, but its philosophical, physiological, and psychological effects remain unknown in a period when technological interaction and live communication through computer use, internet chat, mobile phones, and SMS texts are part of the everyday life of -teenagers and the youth of today. This not only includes issues such as the debate on whether mobile telephones increase the likelihood of brain tumours, but the behavioural responses of children to ‘instant’ gratification, or whether mobile phone addiction will become a significant disability (di Maggio et al., 2001). These are issues which remain unresolved; their resolution will not be immediate. 3. The vision of teenagers in this day and age With the growth of technologies as the internet and computers, teenagers and young people are becoming more dislocated from society (Griswold, 2012). Isolation is one form of this problem. The Japanese phenomenon of hikikomori, whereby young people (commonly, males, and more increasingly, adults) sequester themselves, using only technology to keep in touch with society, is believed to affect almost two million people worldwide (Longo, 2010). Social interaction results in levels of stress and distress to the degree that individuals cannot cope, and seek refuge instead in an environment which they feel is fully within their control. Additionally, education is being transformed by technology. Stimulating students is not a matter of making a great speech or a dominant lesson anymore; educators need to be brought down to a teenagers level of understanding (Weiser and Brown, 1997). The need and wishes of modern youth are very different from those of their parents, as can be seen in hikikomori (Longo, 2010). The most inspiring tool for teens and their lifestyle is the internet, mobile technologies, and computers (Griswold, 2012. Teenagers and young people also have changed in comparison with teens in the past, taking into account eating habits, an active way of life, spending free time, and the importance of music and fashion. The affordability of many of these factors has changed considerably since, for example, the post-war generation (Bennett and Maton, 2010). The most important change, however, is that they are a technology generation. For teens in todays world, mobile phones, internet, music, movies, television and video games are very important. Most teenagers prefer watching television and playing computer games to reading books. They dislike reading because watching television or playing online role-playing games is easier and they do not have to use their own imagination (Davies and Eynon, 2013). Computer games have the capacity to provide teaching opportunities but they are also harmful to health (Longo, 2010). Teenagers prefer to spend free time in front of a computer rather than to walk, play football, go to a swimming pool, or just simply meet a friend in the park and have a chat. The long term effects of these changes are not likely to be evident for at least three more generations. According to di Maggio et al. (2001), the internet expands daily and reaches more and more people globally. As a society, improvements in literacy may rise due to the growth of the internet. The young generation cannot imagine their day’s homework without the support of the one of most important modern technological developments, the internet. The internet is very useful and an important tool for studies, as there they are able to see the latest reports and articles, find and practise exercises which are relevant to their studies, as well as submit assignments and other work. Further, a teenagers social life becomes inextricably linked to social networking, especially through live chat and Facebook. They would rather say that this is the easiest way to communicate with each other, as well as learning new things and having fun (Davies and Eynon, 2013). Many things can be done through the internet. Young people can download music and other files and play online games with their real or virtual friends. In this way, therefore, the internet influences the teen view to the world and its future. It also gives them an opportunity to interact with other teens and discuss relevant issues. One important aspect of teens using internet is their freedom to post criticism of government leaders. Youths have limited abilities to communicate meaningfully with government as they cannot vote; the internet permits them to give their beliefs about what is wrong and what is right from their point of view, (Davies and Eynon, 2013). On social websites youths can have relations and communication with their friends or just someone who is far away from their homes and around the world, chatting on the worldwide web, emailing or just playing games. This has been extended considerably with the advent of smart phones (Bennett and Maton, 2010). Using the internet teenagers can go shopping with their friends using the same website, use microphones or cameras to film themselves, nearly in the same way as they would go out together for real shopping. Thus, the public sphere – through recreational chat as well as more complex interactions – is extended in the manner akin to that described by Habermas (1989). Nevertheless, this change to ‘life online’ means that, inevitably, many real world problems manifest themselves in the internet, and then have a further real world consequence. This can be seen in the phenomenon of cyber bullying. Cyber bullying targets the sexuality, physical attractiveness and friendships of children and teenagers (Davies and Eynon, 2013). Victims do not know what to do or where to turn. Cyber bullies harass victims anonymously. The psychological damage is horrific because the victims own peers have turned on them and there is nowhere for them to go, with teenage suicides and attempted suicides reported in the past (Griswold, 2013). A ‘dis-connect’ from human reactions could contribute to cyber bullying. People learn to communicate mostly through text messages or online, and do not learn important aspects of human interaction, such as noticing and accepting non-verbal signals (Griswold, 2013). Without these signals and characteristics it is easy to be misunderstood and for the victim to be dehumanised (di Maggio et al., 2001). This is also true of online dating (Winston, 1998). People are normally aware of what someone is saying or not saying, through gesticulations and voice tones. Without these cues, it is difficult to appreciate how the other person is feeling and whether there is truly a connection. Youth can start to feel as if who they are is not recognised, that they are reviled or that nobody wants them, when for example the text message or email was simply not received. Young people have created and developed a communication culture that incorporates many special features, such as a rise in the use of text-based communication channels (Davies and Eynon, 2013). Teenagers intersecting and selective use of communication channels has been shaped by multimedia communication (Weiser and Brown, 1997). Thus, their public sphere utilises a wider range of platforms than previously; nevertheless, it is still merely an extension of the public sphere, just as television and newspapers were (Habermas, 1989). Regardless of their form, the media landscapes created by teenagers serve to articulate their personal space, as well as enabling their presentation of self and defining their relationships to others). This can be seen in young peoples relationship to the mobile phone and other forms of interactive technology, which is consistent with their general consumption styles. An addictive use of the phone has been related to trendy and impulsive consumption styles prevalent among females (Davies and Eynon, 2013). Technology enthusiasm and trend-consciousness was linked to impulsive consumption and hard values more prevalent among males (di Maggio et al., 2001). In contrast, a frugal mobile phone use was not related to gender but to environmentalism and thrifty consumption in general. The traditional gender division in mobile phone use styles that could be observed is interesting in the light of conjectures that genders are becoming more alike in their use of new technology. The increasing trend towards ‘instant gratification’ that has been fed by high rates of credit over the last 30 years is exacerbated by an impatience facilitated by devices such as smart phones (Griswold, 2012). The net result of several of several generations for whom this is true has not yet been realised. 4. Conclusion Technology is one of a number of mediating factors in human behaviour and social change, which both acts on and is acted upon by other phenomena. Being critical of technological determinism is not to discount the importance of the fact that the technical features of different communication technologies facilitate different kinds of use, though the potential applications of technologies are not necessarily realised. Enthusiasm for technological progress typically involves technological determinism. As Potter and Sarre (1974, p. 485), caution that, in reaction to the changes taking places amongst today’s youth, there is evidently an unmistakable tone of moral disapproval directed against cultural interval – that is, resistances to structural and normative adaptations occasioned by innovation. This is not new. Every generation expresses concern for the pace and nature of change, and questions whether change is driving society or society desires the changes wrought. In the meantime, the technological revolution will enable people’s lives to be easier, in ways such as social interaction, education, manufacturing, and so on. Withdrawing from the degree to which technology has shaped society will be very difficult, and likely to lead to large-scale economic chaos (Barrell and Fic, 2013). The rise in costs, for example, through slower communications or manual manufacturing methods, would result in an overwhelming, if temporary drain on the economy; nevertheless, given the decrease in fossil fuel availability, this may be a future that society needs to consider. Humans are highly adaptable, as the integration of change previously has demonstrated. There may be a social cost in this, as Thoreau (1854) speculated, but this flexibility has permitted societies of many different forms to flourish for millennia. The liberty for people discuss change, as Habermas (1989) has described, has expanded in the last three hundred years. Nevertheless, thinkers such as Thoreau and Habermas are prepared to question not only technological progress but change in its most elementary form. This is what will preserve humanity from self-destructive change. Many people may feel that teenagers are unwittingly ‘walking into’ self-destructive change through their eager acceptance of technology in every aspect of their lives (di Maggio et al., 2001). Whilst this may be a legitimate concern, it should also be borne in mind that teenagers are not merely being controlled by devices but are using devices to facilitate change – through social media. This was apparent during the ‘Arab Spring’ (Khondker, 2011), and was widely welcomed. Enthusiasm for technological progress typically involves technological determinism. As Potter and Sarre (1974, p. 485), caution that, in reaction to the changes taking places amongst today’s youth, ‘there is evidently an unmistakable tone of moral disapproval directed against cultural interval – that is, resistances to structural and normative adaptations occasioned by innovation. This is not new. Every generation expresses concern for the pace and nature of change, and questions whether change is driving society or society desires the changes wrought. The human willingness to use change meaningfully and self-reflect, it is hoped, will protect society from itself. 5. References Barrell, R. and Fic, T. (2013). Integration, globalisation, technology and trade patterns in the EU8. Research in Economics and Business: Central and Eastern Europe, 2(1), pp. 1-13. Beniger, J. (1989). The control revolution: Technological and economic origins of the information society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bennett, S. and Maton, K. (2010), Beyond the ‘digital natives’ debate: Towards a more nuanced understanding of students technology experiences. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26(5), pp. 321-331. Coeckelbergh, M. (2012). â€Å"How I learned to love the robot†: Capabilities, information technologies, and elderly care. In Oosterlaken, I. and van der Hoven, J. (eds), The capability approach, technology and design. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 77-86. Davies, C. and Eynon, R. (2013). Teenagers and technology. Hove: Routledge. De Tocqueville, A. (1835). Democracy in America: Volume I. [1990] New York: Vintage Books. Denning, P.J. and Metcalfe, RM. (eds) (1997). Beyond calculation: The next fifty years of computing. New York: Springer. DiMaggio, P., Hargittai, E., Neuman, W.R. and Robinson, J.P. (2001). Social implications of the internet. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, pp. 307-336. Griswold, W. (2012). Cultures and societies in a changing world (4th edn). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Habermas, J. (1989). The structural transformation of the public sphere. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Khondker, H.H. (2011). Role of the new media in the Arab Spring. Globalizations, 8(5), pp. 675-679. Longo, G.O. (2010). Communication, technology, and the planetary creature. Communication, Capitalism Critique, 8(1), pp. 18-27. Oosterlaken, I. and van der Hoven, J. (eds) (2012). The capability approach, technology and design. Dordrecht: Springer. Potter, D. and Sarre, P. (eds) (1974). Dimensions of society: A reader. London: University of London Press/Open University Press. Thoreau, H.D. (1854). Walden; Or life in the woods. Boston: Ticknor and Fields. Weiser, M. and Brown, J.S. (1997). The coming age of calm technology. In Denning, P.J. and Metcalfe, R.M. (eds), Beyond calculation: The next fifty years of computing. New York: Springer, pp. 75-85. Winston, B. (1998). Media technology and society: a history: From the telegraph to the Internet. Abingdon: Psychology Press.

The Prince as Foundation of Modern Day Politics :: Machiavelli Prince Essays

The Prince as Foundation of Modern Day Politics In The Prince Niccolo Machiavelli presents a view of governing a state that is drastically different from that of humanists of his time. Machiavelli believes the ruling Prince should be the sole authority determining every aspect of the state and put in effect a policy to serve his best interests. These interests were gaining, maintaining, and expanding his political power. His understanding of human nature was a complete contradiction of what humanists believed and taught. Machiavelli strongly promoted a secular society and felt morality was not necessary but in fact stood in the way of an effectively governed principality. Though in some cases Machiavelli's suggestions seem harsh and immoral one must remember that these views were derived out of concern Italy's unstable political condition. Though humanists of Machiavelli's time believed that an individual had much to offer to the well being of the state, Machiavelli was quick to mock human nature. Humanists believed that "An individual only 'grows to maturity- both intellectually and morally- through participation' in the life of the state." Machiavelli generally distrusted citizens, stating that "...in time of adversity, when the state is in need of it's citizens there are few to be found." Machiavelli further goes on to question the loyalty of the citizens and advises the Prince that "...because me n a wretched creatures who would not keep their word to you, you need keep your word to them." Machiavelli did not feel that a Prince should mistreat the citizens. This suggestion, once again, serves the Prince's best interests. If a prince cannot be both feared and loved, Machiavelli suggests, it would be better for him to be feared buy the citizens within his own principality. He makes the generalization that men are, "...ungrateful, fickle, liars, and deceivers, they shun danger and are greedy for profit; while you treat them well they are yours." He characterizes men as being self centered and not willing to act in the best interest of the state,"[and when the prince] is in danger they turn against [him]." Machiavelli reinforces the prince's need to be feared by stating: â€Å"Men worry less about doing an injury to one who makes himself loved than to one who makes himself feared. The bond of love is one which men, wretched creatures they are, break when it is to their advantage to do so; but fear is strengthened by a dread of punishment which is always effective.

Canadian Strategy of Economic Development Essay

In this article the researchers have used secondary research and they have conducted intrevies and triangulation. They have emphasized that the colonialization has greatly affected the growth of Canada and the people however want a more tradionally and culturally grounded foundation. The indigenous people think that they have right to maintain their political, economics and social systems. The prevailing conditions are very bad as they people have a lot of health and educational problems. The article explain that the Canadian are currently pursuing a strategy of economic development with a social entrepreneurship as their core activity. The paper has in a very sound way defined the problems of the people and what they want. They say that economic development can be achieved by 4 ways first by having greater control of activities on their traditional lands. They should be more self determined and put an end to dependence on self sufficiency. They should preserve and strength their traditional values and apply them in economic development and their should be improved socio-economics circumstances for individuals. The researcher have tried to answer the question whether the indigenous people have the power for economic development. The say that they do have the power and currently followed three broad perspective firstly modernization in which till 1960 they used to follow the path of first world countries but it was useless after 1960 when most of Latin America failed. Second perspective was radical perspective which stated that everything is happening cause of the First world War however both these perspectives when applied in real world were illogical and the results gained from them were also not fruitful. Thirdly was the regulation perspective which is a new approach to development that emphasis contingency. They explained that the world has moved away from the concept of ‘0Invisible hand’ of perfectly functioning market they believe that everyone is working for their own benefit so the presence of a government is necessary. The problem with this perspective is that Scott stated that â€Å" Regulation theory does not preassemble the exact nature of a particular mode of social regulation each region can be regulated by a multiplicity of ways. PECK AND TICKBULL ALSO STATED THAT â€Å"THE MODES OF REGUYLZATION IS BASED UPON THINGS AS HABIT, social norms, enforceable laws and state forms. The researcher stated that they provided the people with a questionnaire in which they were asked to opt in or opt out. The people  chose â€Å"Opt In† in which the people were ready to practicable in the global economic growth and were ready to take the necessary steps. In the article the researcher also pointed out that the land claims and economic growth can be both solved by government policy and development strategies of entrepreneurs. There could be more research in which they could ask the views of the people as to what they think should be done. More of primary research should be taken place as secondary data becomes outdated after some time period. More future research csan be done as to how more investors form other countries could be attracted to Canada. Whether their cultural is one that is welcoming and the nature of the people. More research should be done as to what roles government should play to make the people ready to move along with its policies. In tbhe End there were a lot of incidents which were related as to what decision the people and the government faced and what decision were taken. In the conclusion they have stated that they have decreased their role and interference in the lives of the people . More authority is given to the people so that the social economics objectives are achieved and how other economies like them can take measure like them in order to be more socially economic growth indigenous economies.

Mental Illness

The social construction of mental illness Key Words * Career: The gradual change in people as a response to a label e. g. mental patient. * Learned Helplessness: learning how to be dependent. * Life-course model: suggests that the accumulation of social events experienced over a whole lifetime, not just individual important events, influence people and their mental state. * Presenting culture: a term used by Goffman to refer to how people like to portray themselves to others. * Schizophrenia: a form of mental illness where people are unable to distinguish their own feelings and perceptions from reality. Self-Fulfilling prophecy: predictions about the behaviour of social groups that come true as a result of positive or negative labelling. * Social Capital: refers to a network of social contacts. * Social constructionism: the approach which suggests that mental illness exists because people believe that it does. * Social realism: a sociological approach which suggests that mental illne ss does really exist. Summary Mental illness is the less fortunate twin to physical illness. The NHS is not funding enough support for mental health patients and the attention paid to it is minimal.Mental health is a major problem in society with one in seven people claiming to have had mental health problems at some point in their lives. Social Trends 2007 (Self and Zealey 2007) said that about one in six British people aged 16 to 74 reported experiencing a neurotic disorder in the seven days before a national survey on mental health. When looking at which group is most likely to suffer from high rates of mental illness, the poorest and most excluded are majorly overrepresented. Defining mental illness Social Realism: A general term used to describe the approaches of sociologists who accept that there are distinctive sets of abnormal behaviour that cause distress to individuals and those around them. * Pilgrim and Rogers (1999) accept that, at different times and in different cultu res, there are variations in what is considered as mental illness. * Although mental illness may have different names and sometimes not be recognized, it does actually exist as a real condition. * Similar to the bio-medical approach which believes that symptoms can be scientifically diagnosed and categorized.They see treatment as allopathic (cure orientated through the use of drugs, shock treatment and surgery etc. * They recommend that sufferers be isolated from wider society. Social constructionism: * Have been very influential in sociological approaches to mental illness and start from the argument that what is considered as normal varies over time and from society to society. * Greater extremes of behaviour have been seen as normal in some societies and symptoms of madness in others. Labelling perspective: Labelling theory examines how the labelling of mental illness occurs in the first place and what effects it has on those who are labelled. * Thomas Szasz (1973) argues that th e label ‘mental illness’ is simply a convenient way to deal with behaviour that people find disruptive. He is particularly critical of psychiatrists for diagnosing children with ADHD and calling it a disease. He says that giving a child a drug for a mythical disease is a form of physical child abuse because the child has no say in the matter. Labelling theory therefore rests firmly upon a social constructionist definition of mental illness. The effects of labelling * Scheff (1966) said that whether someone becomes labelled or not is determined by the benefits those others might gain by labelling the person ‘mentally ill’. So, those who become a nuisance are far more likely to become diagnosed as mentally ill as someone who causes no problems. * Once labelled, there are a number of negative consequences for the person because it is then assumed that all their behaviour is evidence of their mental state. Erving Goffman (1961) followed the careers of people wh o were genuinely defined as being mentally ill. He suggested that once in an institution people are stripped of their presenting culture. Criticisms of the labelling perspective * Gove (1982) suggests that the vast majority of people who receive treatment for mental illness actually have serious problems before they are treated so the argument that the labels cause the problems is wrong. It may explain the responses of others to the mentally ill, but cannot explain the causes of the illness.Foucault’s perspective on mental illness: * He explains the growth in the concept of mental illness by placing it in the context if the changing ways of thinking and acting which developed in the early 18th century. * During the enlightenment more traditional ways of thinking were gradually replaced by more rational and disciplined ways of thinking. He argues that as rationality developed into the normal way of thinking, irrationality became to be perceived as deviant. * Having mad people in asylums isolated mad people away from the majority of the population.They symbolized the fact that madness or irrationality was marked out as behaviour that is no longer acceptable. Structuralist perspectives on mental illness: * Virde (1977) explained the fact that some ethnic minorities are more likely to develop mental health problems by arguing that the sorts of pressures and stresses that can cause people to develop mental illness are more often experienced by people in an ethnic minority. * Nazroo is critical of this approach. He points out that people of the Bangladeshi origin who are victims of racism have lower levels of mental illness than the general population.He concludes that mental illness cannot just be caused by racism and deprivation. * Brown et al (1995) explained that women are more likely to lead stressful lives because they have the dial burden and triple shift. * Labelling theorists (Chelser 1972), say that women are more likely to be seen as mentally ill b ecause the defining of illness is mainly done by males. * Link and Phelan (1995) reviewed all the evidence and concluded that research pointed out a relationship between low levels of deprivation and mental illness.Social capital (Putnam 2000) argued that people who have extensive and strong levels of social networks are more likely to be ‘happier’ than those who don’t. Check Your Understanding: 1) The two sociological approaches to explaining mental illness are social realist and social constructionist. 2) Social realist bases itself on the idea that there are distinctive sets of abnormal behaviour that should be treated; they are very similar to the bio-medical approach.Social constructionist believes that definitions of mental illness can vary over time and in different cultures. 3) Labelling helps us understand that some people may live up to the label they have been given and can strip mental health patients of any self-dignity as they have no say in what ha ppens to them as they have been given the label of someone who is mad. 4) A structural explanation is closely tied to the social realist definition of mental illness; they accept the reality of mental illness and set out to discover what social factors help cause them. ) Busfield says that it is true that some groups are more likely to find their behaviour defined as mental illness, compared to the behaviour of other groups however al of those groups experience higher levels of stress so mental illness would be higher. 6) They are more likely to show cultural characterises that are not seen as normal in a wider society. 7) They use the idea that women have more responsibilities than men and that the defining of mental illness tends to be dominated by male health professionals. Mental Illness The social construction of mental illness Key Words * Career: The gradual change in people as a response to a label e. g. mental patient. * Learned Helplessness: learning how to be dependent. * Life-course model: suggests that the accumulation of social events experienced over a whole lifetime, not just individual important events, influence people and their mental state. * Presenting culture: a term used by Goffman to refer to how people like to portray themselves to others. * Schizophrenia: a form of mental illness where people are unable to distinguish their own feelings and perceptions from reality. Self-Fulfilling prophecy: predictions about the behaviour of social groups that come true as a result of positive or negative labelling. * Social Capital: refers to a network of social contacts. * Social constructionism: the approach which suggests that mental illness exists because people believe that it does. * Social realism: a sociological approach which suggests that mental illne ss does really exist. Summary Mental illness is the less fortunate twin to physical illness. The NHS is not funding enough support for mental health patients and the attention paid to it is minimal.Mental health is a major problem in society with one in seven people claiming to have had mental health problems at some point in their lives. Social Trends 2007 (Self and Zealey 2007) said that about one in six British people aged 16 to 74 reported experiencing a neurotic disorder in the seven days before a national survey on mental health. When looking at which group is most likely to suffer from high rates of mental illness, the poorest and most excluded are majorly overrepresented. Defining mental illness Social Realism: A general term used to describe the approaches of sociologists who accept that there are distinctive sets of abnormal behaviour that cause distress to individuals and those around them. * Pilgrim and Rogers (1999) accept that, at different times and in different cultu res, there are variations in what is considered as mental illness. * Although mental illness may have different names and sometimes not be recognized, it does actually exist as a real condition. * Similar to the bio-medical approach which believes that symptoms can be scientifically diagnosed and categorized.They see treatment as allopathic (cure orientated through the use of drugs, shock treatment and surgery etc. * They recommend that sufferers be isolated from wider society. Social constructionism: * Have been very influential in sociological approaches to mental illness and start from the argument that what is considered as normal varies over time and from society to society. * Greater extremes of behaviour have been seen as normal in some societies and symptoms of madness in others. Labelling perspective: Labelling theory examines how the labelling of mental illness occurs in the first place and what effects it has on those who are labelled. * Thomas Szasz (1973) argues that th e label ‘mental illness’ is simply a convenient way to deal with behaviour that people find disruptive. He is particularly critical of psychiatrists for diagnosing children with ADHD and calling it a disease. He says that giving a child a drug for a mythical disease is a form of physical child abuse because the child has no say in the matter. Labelling theory therefore rests firmly upon a social constructionist definition of mental illness. The effects of labelling * Scheff (1966) said that whether someone becomes labelled or not is determined by the benefits those others might gain by labelling the person ‘mentally ill’. So, those who become a nuisance are far more likely to become diagnosed as mentally ill as someone who causes no problems. * Once labelled, there are a number of negative consequences for the person because it is then assumed that all their behaviour is evidence of their mental state. Erving Goffman (1961) followed the careers of people wh o were genuinely defined as being mentally ill. He suggested that once in an institution people are stripped of their presenting culture. Criticisms of the labelling perspective * Gove (1982) suggests that the vast majority of people who receive treatment for mental illness actually have serious problems before they are treated so the argument that the labels cause the problems is wrong. It may explain the responses of others to the mentally ill, but cannot explain the causes of the illness.Foucault’s perspective on mental illness: * He explains the growth in the concept of mental illness by placing it in the context if the changing ways of thinking and acting which developed in the early 18th century. * During the enlightenment more traditional ways of thinking were gradually replaced by more rational and disciplined ways of thinking. He argues that as rationality developed into the normal way of thinking, irrationality became to be perceived as deviant. * Having mad people in asylums isolated mad people away from the majority of the population.They symbolized the fact that madness or irrationality was marked out as behaviour that is no longer acceptable. Structuralist perspectives on mental illness: * Virde (1977) explained the fact that some ethnic minorities are more likely to develop mental health problems by arguing that the sorts of pressures and stresses that can cause people to develop mental illness are more often experienced by people in an ethnic minority. * Nazroo is critical of this approach. He points out that people of the Bangladeshi origin who are victims of racism have lower levels of mental illness than the general population.He concludes that mental illness cannot just be caused by racism and deprivation. * Brown et al (1995) explained that women are more likely to lead stressful lives because they have the dial burden and triple shift. * Labelling theorists (Chelser 1972), say that women are more likely to be seen as mentally ill b ecause the defining of illness is mainly done by males. * Link and Phelan (1995) reviewed all the evidence and concluded that research pointed out a relationship between low levels of deprivation and mental illness.Social capital (Putnam 2000) argued that people who have extensive and strong levels of social networks are more likely to be ‘happier’ than those who don’t. Check Your Understanding: 1) The two sociological approaches to explaining mental illness are social realist and social constructionist. 2) Social realist bases itself on the idea that there are distinctive sets of abnormal behaviour that should be treated; they are very similar to the bio-medical approach.Social constructionist believes that definitions of mental illness can vary over time and in different cultures. 3) Labelling helps us understand that some people may live up to the label they have been given and can strip mental health patients of any self-dignity as they have no say in what ha ppens to them as they have been given the label of someone who is mad. 4) A structural explanation is closely tied to the social realist definition of mental illness; they accept the reality of mental illness and set out to discover what social factors help cause them. ) Busfield says that it is true that some groups are more likely to find their behaviour defined as mental illness, compared to the behaviour of other groups however al of those groups experience higher levels of stress so mental illness would be higher. 6) They are more likely to show cultural characterises that are not seen as normal in a wider society. 7) They use the idea that women have more responsibilities than men and that the defining of mental illness tends to be dominated by male health professionals.